Week 9 [Mon, Oct 14th] - Topics

A class diagram can also show different types of relationships between classes: inheritance, compositions, aggregations, dependencies.

A class diagram can also show different types of class-like entities:

Logging is the deliberate recording of certain information during a program execution for future reference. Logs are typically written to a log file but it is also possible to log information in other ways e.g. into a database or a remote server.

Logging can be useful for troubleshooting problems. A good logging system records some system information regularly. When bad things happen to a system e.g. an unanticipated failure, their associated log files may provide indications of what went wrong and actions can then be taken to prevent it from happening again.

Most programming environments come with logging systems that allow sophisticated forms of logging. They have features such as the ability to enable and disable logging easily or to change the logging .

import java.util.logging.*;

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

private static Logger logger = Logger.getLogger("Foo");

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

// log a message at INFO level
logger.log(Level.INFO, "going to start processing");
// ...
processInput();
if (error) {
    // log a message at WARNING level
    logger.log(Level.WARNING, "processing error", ex);
}
// ...
logger.log(Level.INFO, "end of processing");

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

Assertions are used to define assumptions about the program state so that the runtime can verify them. An assertion failure indicates a possible bug in the code because the code has resulted in a program state that violates an assumption about how the code should behave.

If the runtime detects an assertion failure, it typically takes some drastic action such as terminating the execution with an error message. This is because an assertion failure indicates a possible bug and the sooner the execution stops, the safer it is.

int timeout = Config.getTimeout();
// set assertion here ...

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

Use the assert keyword to define assertions.

x = getX();
assert x == 0 : "x should be 0";
...

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

Assertions can be disabled without modifying the code.

Enable assertions in IntelliJ (how?) and get an assertion to fail temporarily (e.g. insert an assert false into the code temporarily) to confirm assertions are being verified.

Java assert vs JUnit assertions: Both check for a given condition but JUnit assertions are more powerful and customized for testing. In addition, JUnit assertions are not disabled by default. Use JUnit assertions in test code and Java assert in functional code.

It is recommended that assertions be used liberally in the code. Their impact on performance is low, and worth the additional safety they provide.

Do not use assertions to do work because assertions can be disabled. If not, your program will stop working when assertions are not enabled.

...
assert writeFile() : "File writing is supposed to return true";

    

    


    
    
    

      


    
    

Assertions are suitable for verifying assumptions about Internal Invariants, Control-Flow Invariants, Preconditions, Postconditions, and Class Invariants. Refer to Programming with Assertions (second half) to learn more.

Exceptions and assertions are two complementary ways of handling errors in software but they serve different purposes. Therefore, both assertions and exceptions should be used in code.

• The raising of an exception indicates an unusual condition created by the user (e.g. user inputs an unacceptable input) or the environment (e.g., a file needed for the program is missing).
• An assertion failure indicates the programmer made a mistake in the code (e.g., a null value is returned from a method that is not supposed to return null under any circumstances).

The guiding principle of abstraction is that only details that are relevant to the current perspective or the task at hand need to be considered. As most programs are written to solve complex problems involving large amounts of intricate details, it is impossible to deal with all these details at the same time. That is where abstraction can help.

Data abstraction: abstracting away the lower level data items and thinking in terms of bigger entities

Control abstraction: abstracting away details of the actual control flow to focus on tasks at a higher level

Abstraction can be applied repeatedly to obtain progressively higher levels of abstraction.

Abstraction is a general concept that is not limited to just data or control abstractions.

Coupling is a measure of the degree of dependence between components, classes, methods, etc. Low coupling indicates that a component is less dependent on other components. High coupling (aka tight coupling or strong coupling) is discouraged due to the following disadvantages:

• Maintenance is harder because a change in one module could cause changes in other modules coupled to it (i.e. a ripple effect).
• Integration is harder because multiple components coupled with each other have to be integrated at the same time.
• Testing and reuse of the module is harder due to its dependence on other modules.

In the example below, design A appears to have more coupling between the components than design B.

X is coupled to Y if a change to Y can potentially require a change in X.

Cohesion is a measure of how strongly-related and focused the various responsibilities of a component are. A highly-cohesive component keeps related functionalities together while keeping out all other unrelated things.

Higher cohesion is better. Disadvantages of low cohesion (aka weak cohesion):

• Lowers the understandability of modules as it is difficult to express module functionalities at a higher level.
• Lowers maintainability because a module can be modified due to unrelated causes (reason: the module contains code unrelated to each other) or many modules may need to be modified to achieve a small change in behavior (reason: because the code related to that change is not localized to a single module).
• Lowers reusability of modules because they do not represent logical units of functionality.

Cohesion can be present in many forms. Some examples:

• Code related to a single concept is kept together, e.g. the Student component handles everything related to students.
• Code that is invoked close together in time is kept together, e.g. all code related to initializing the system is kept together.
• Code that manipulates the same data structure is kept together, e.g. the GameArchive component handles everything related to the storage and retrieval of game sessions.

If a class has only one responsibility, it needs to change only when there is a change to that responsibility.

Gather together the things that change for the same reasons. Separate those things that change for different reasons. _{―- Agile Software Development, Principles, Patterns, and Practices by Robert C. Martin}

A concern in this context is a set of information that affects the code of a computer program.

Applying reduces functional overlaps among code sections and also limits the ripple effect when changes are introduced to a specific part of the system.

This principle can be applied at the class level, as well as at higher levels.

This principle should lead to higher cohesion and lower coupling.

LSP sounds the same as substitutability but it goes beyond substitutability; LSP implies that a subclass should not be more restrictive than the behavior specified by the superclass. As you know, Java has language support for substitutability. However, if LSP is not followed, substituting a subclass object for a superclass object can break the functionality of the code.

Suppose the Payroll class depends on the adjustMySalary(int percent) method of the Staff class. Furthermore, the Staff class states that the adjustMySalary method will work for all positive percent values. Both the Admin and Academic classes override the adjustMySalary method.

Now consider the following:

• The Admin#adjustMySalary method works for both negative and positive percent values.
• The Academic#adjustMySalary method works for percent values 1..100 only.

In the above scenario,

• The Admin class follows LSP because it fulfills Payroll’s expectation of Staff objects (i.e. it works for all positive values). Substituting Admin objects for Staff objects will not break the Payroll class functionality.
• The Academic class violates LSP because it will not work for percent values over 100 as expected by the Payroll class. Substituting Academic objects for Staff objects can potentially break the Payroll class functionality.

Another example

---

Testability is an indication of how easy it is to test an SUT. As testability depends a lot on the design and implementation, you should try to increase the testability when you design and implement software. The higher the testability, the easier it is to achieve better quality software.